Resistance to Change Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Resistance to Change - Research Paper Example Robbin (2005) highlights, that one of the causes of organizational resistance to change is structural inertia. In organizations, there are structures, which are built to ensure stability of the firm such as recruitment, training and selection structures etc. these structures are used systematically in the organization to achieve desired goals. When change is introduced in the organization, these structures can inhibit or cause resistance to change so that they can sustain previous stability in the organization (Robbins, 2005). Secondly, group resistance can also cause organizational resistance to change, considering they are made of groups of employees who have norms and cultures, and they can inhibit change in the organization. If people are organized in groups, then any change made by the organization can be resisted because members have influence on each other. The third cause of resistance to change is the threat of established management and power structures in the organization (Sadhu, 2009). There are groups in the organization, which controls the flow of resources, and they might see change as a threat to their power hence resisting the change. These groups are normally comfortable with current situations in organizations and any attempts of change can be resisted with ease because they control the resources and power. Lastly, poor communications in the organization can cause resistance to change

Elizabeth asks Proctor Essay Example for Free

Elizabeth asks Proctor Essay Proctor tells Danforth that Elizabeth knew that she was a harlot and kicked her out of their service. So Danforth decides to call Elizabeth to verify the accusation. Proctor and Abigail are told to turn around and not turn to face Elizabeth when she is brought in. They do as they are told. When Elizabeth enters she is told not to look at either of the other two, only at him. He begins by asking her why she dismissed Abigail from their service. Elizabeth tells them that Abigail dissatisfied her, and that also she thought that her husband was turning from her and began to like Abigail. Elizabeth: I came to think he fancied her. And so one night I lost my wits, I think, and put her out on the highroad. But she does not tell the judges that Proctor committed the crime of adultery. At this point Elizabeth doesnt know how much trouble she has got her husband into and this is dramatic irony because we know that Elizabeth must tell the truth of Proctor crimes in order to save his life but she doesnt know that. So, naturally, she tells the judges a lie, thinking she is actually saving his life. This is one of the biggest ironies of the play and affects the whole outcome of it. Danforth is now convinced that Proctor was lying. He is given a chance to confess to his crimes and free himself from the devil. Proctor, being a man of honour and truth, refuses to confess to something he didnt do. Proctor had a chance to save his life but didnt take it. Instead, in his rage and anger, he shouts out Proctor: I-I say god is dead! This tells us that Proctor cares more about his name than his life. Danforth then arrests Proctor for contempt of court and of being a witch. Many days pass since the fiasco at the court. On the morning of the day of Proctors hanging, Proctor is given a last and final chance to confess to his crimes. Elizabeth is brought out to try and convince her husband to confess. There seems to be some hope when Proctor half heartedly agrees to the terms. Proctor: I want my life. But then, Proctor is asked to sign his name on a paper to prove his confession. This is to be stuck all over the village, but his guilt and shame to confessing to false charges overwhelm him and he withdraws. He asks if he could just orally say his confession, but Danforth wants him to sign it as proof. Proctor does not want to sign away his name on a contract. Proctor (with a cry of his whole soul): Because it is my name! Because I cannot have another in my life. Because I lie and sign myself to lies! Because I am not worth the dust on the feet of them that hang! How may I live without my name? I have given you my soul; leave me my name! (Act 4, Page 115) Again, here he could have easily saved his life but Proctor is extremely cautious of what others think of him, and believes that if he did sign, people would begin to call him a traitor. Elizabeth fully understands his decision and says her final farewells. The parallels between Proctor and Miller, and the two periods in time, are evident in the last scene. Proctor refused to give names of people to Danforth just as Miller did when he was asked for the names of those who may be a threat to America. Also, all of the allegations made on the both of them were false. These times were of hysteria and suspicion. People were willing to believe in anything that promised peace and calm afterwards. So Danforth had the edge in his time, just as McCarthy did in his. Proctor had many chances to save his life in the play, but he never took the chance, and he paid for it dearly. There were many routes he could have taken in order to save his life or even get revenge on Abigail. The main one being that he could have signed the confession and get it over with. But as I said, he did not want to sign his name away, or be freed, only to be hated by his neighbours. He could have, and did in the end, taken the stand against the evil in the village and use himself as an example to others. Also he could have shown that the deaths in Salem only happened for the selfish desires of people like Danforth and the Putnams. Last of all, he could have got himself hanged to get revenge on Abigail. If she loved Proctor, then she would be in deep sorry if Proctor was killed. But this is one of the more strange reasons. Personally, I think that he could have saved his life by signing the paper and confessing. If he loved his family as much as he says he does, then he should have done it just so he could be with his family again. Then again, there are some disadvantages to this. Firstly his neighbours wont like him because he was once accused of being a witch. People will point the finger at him and his family for not saving their friends lives. But for them, that is not much of a problem seeing as their house is outside of Salem. All in all, Proctor could have saved his life but didnt only because of his pride and vanity. He never wanted to be thought unpleasantly of in the village, and for his own selfish reason, got himself hung, and I believe that he was wrong to do so. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section.

Trinidad And Tobago By World War II History Essay

Trinidad And Tobago By World War II History Essay World War 2, also known as the Second World War was the largest and most violent armed conflict in history which lasted for more than six years from 1939 to 1945, which produced approximately 50 million deaths. This war involved the most countries compared to any other war and introduced many weapons and ended with the first use of nuclear weapons. It began in Europe on September 1st, 1939 when the Germans invaded Poland without any formal declaration, while Britain and France as allies formally declared war on Germany and the latter was aided by Italy and Japan. However in the early 1930s, the war began earlier with Japanese interventions in China. In Europe the war ended on May 8th 1945 with Germany surrendering and in Asia on September 2nd, 1945 when the Japan officially surrendered. The purpose of this paper is to critique the view that World War II ushered in radical changes in Trinidad and Tobago, firstly I provided a brief history of World War II and how Trinidad became apart of it. Lastly I discussed the social, infrastructure, economic and cultural changes it brought in Trinidad and Tobago. The research method employed in this paper was a form of non-experimental research as secondary data was collected in order to evaluate the changes World War II to brought to Trinidad and Tobago. In carrying out this research, a major limitation was that information on the research topic was not easily available both on the internet and libraries and it is therefore recommended schools and national libraries encompass more resources on Trinidad and Tobagos history. History of World War II On September 1st, 1939 Adolf Hitler and his German Nazis invaded  Poland and attacked from their battle ship. The Germans were equipped with a substantial and well-organized general and soldiers causing Poland to surrender. In turn the next day Britain and France formally declared war against Germany and swore their allegiance as a result of defending democracy. Germany was later on joined by Japan and Italy to suppress the rest of the world, they were known as the Axis powers. Against them were the allies; the United Kingdom, France and many others that came later. The United Stated of America remained neutral with the passage of the Neutrality Act of 1937, making it unlawful for the United States to trade with combative groups. However on December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the American base of Pearl Harbor in the Hawaii islands thereby the Americans entered into war against the Axis. The United States of American was determined to restrain the Axis powers with their massive economic resources and in the end won the war for the Allies and collapsed the Axis powers. The Germans surrendered to the United States of America and their allied forces and the war in Europe was over and a couple months after Japan surrendered after attacking Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In order for United Stated of America to defeat the Axis powers, they outsourced countries to set up base, Trinidad was on of them in which had a major impact on the country socially, culturally, economically and racially. World War II today continues to receive much interest as it left many political, social and military implications throughout the World. Trinidad and World War II Trinidad played an important role in the Allied war effort, in doing so World War II had a significant impact on the social, economic, racial and cultural development of Trinidad. On September 2, 1940, nearly a year after the World War II began, British government, Prime Minister Winston Churchill agreed to allow the United States of America military to establish and operate bases in several British Caribbean territories. On October, 10 1940, a memorandum was sent to the Governor of Trinidad and Tobago by Admiral John W. Greenslade of the United States of America stating his visit to Trinidad for the purpose of investigating the location and facilities to be leased to the United States of America for naval and air bases and army establishments. The memorandum included the request for location near shore, areas for defence, training, and storage of supplies, hospitalization, landing fields, and fleet anchorage. The Governor of Trinidad and Tobago, Sir Hubert Young along with his advis ors Mr. Grinnell and Mr. Beard questioned a number of facilities requested by the United States and proposed an alternative site, the Caroni Swamp. The United Stated engineer, Commander Bragg, stated that the current state of the Caroni Swamp at the time was unfeasible for military intent and would take fifteen years to drain and construct to meet the requirement for the military use. In addition Governor Young was aware that the local population would resent the idea of using North West Peninsula and as a result cause friction, however the United States government were adamant on setting up their bases on Wallerfield / Sangre Grande and Chagaramas. The British Government and the United States of America agreed on a Bases for Destroyers Agreement in which the United States was granted British islands to establish their naval or air bases on ninety-nine year free leases on the Newfoundland, Eastern side of the Bahamas, Southern coast of Jamaica, Western cost of St. Lucia, West coast of Trinidad, Antigua and British Guiana in exchange for fifty destroyers which was also referred to as the flush-deck destroyers or the four-pipers. In Trinidad the North West Peninsula including the Five Island in Chaguaramas (See Appendix A) and Waller field were leased to the United States for naval and air base, this resulted in the removal of North West Peninsula residents. Britains motive for entering into the bases for destroyers agreement was an attempt both to strengthen its forces and to enlist the United States in the defense of its colonial territories. British Prime Minister Churchill cautioned American President Franklin D. Roosevelt that if Britain was defeated, its colonial islands close to America could become as threat to America if they became German territory. Therefore the United States of America was initially a neutral party during the first two years of the war and their aim for the deal was made not only to better the Allies chances against the Axis but also to ensure that no other European power gained a stronghold in the Americas. Trinidad was the assembly point for the vital oil tankers; the governments political alliance with the United States did not directly put at the country at risk however the construction of the American bases had a remarkable socio-economic impact on the country. According to Brereton, Trinidad played the following significant roles during the war in assisting the United States; it was the convoy-assembly point transmitting tankers from the Caribbean oil ports across the Atlantic to North Africa and Europe, secondly the Gulf of Paria was used by US carriers and airplanes for their final exercises before going to the Pacific Battleground via the Panama Canal. Thirdly planes for the Eighth Army in North Africa were ferried through Trinidad and lastly vessels and civilian planes from South America had to stop at Trinidad for clearance to proceed to North America and European destinations (Brereton, 1982). Economic Changes The American Base in Trinidad had a number of positive and negative effects on the countrys economy, infrastructure, social and cultural aspects, each one will be discussed separately. Locals were thrilled by the opportunities in which the American Base would bring, according to Neptune (1970) both Indo-Trinidadian cane cutters and Afro-Trinidadian domestic servants were ready take advantage of what they expected to be more remunerative U.S. employers. He made reference to Ralph De Boissiers Rum and Coco Cola narration the rosiest illusions about the chances awaiting them. (Neptune, 1970). At the same time planters were disgruntled since they believed workers would abandon the state to work on the American base. To assist the planters, Governor Young consulted the American authorities to implement the prevailing wages policy in which they agreed to adhere to the local pay scale that preceded their arrival in the colony, Trinidad employers were pleased however workers were disappointed (Neptune, 1970). In May 1942, the Americans requested authorization from the Trinidad Governor to increase wages, stating it was necessary to acquire base labour. According to Neptune, some ignored the colonial administration by paying unskilled and semiskilled labourers the rates of a skilled worker. There were a number of major positive effects of the American base in Trinidad. According to Neptune although the base did not offer high wagers as workers expected the Yankee in which locals referred the Americans as enticed the locals to work on the American base as the American boss were rewarding, they offered overtime and holiday bonus. The American base employed more that 15,000 workers in formal positions within six months of construction of the base, the number working informally from show-shine boys to portraits artist was incalculable. The number of employees rose to 25,000 six months later including clerks, teachers and policeman. Neptune went on to say where trained teachers had a salary of $30 a month, they made between $80 and a $150 dollars per month clerking for Americans. In addition in 1940 only 5 officers left the service , where as in 1941 a total of 21 left and for the first two months of 1942 the figure had already reached 24 (Neptune, 1970). The construction of the American base created a large opportunity of employment for the locals According to Brereton, 1982 between 15 and 20 percent of the labor force were employed on the American base. The wages increased thereby increased rural-urban migration causing a shortage of agricultural labor as sugar employment dropped from 30,000 in 1939 to 18,000 in 1943 (Brereton, 1982). World War II resulted in a slower trade around the world and thereby changed production in Trinidad and Tobago, agricultural exports decreased. According to the Library of Congress, 1987 during the 1950s, agricultures share of total output dropped from 17 to 12 percent Trinidad and Tobago was a crown colony and therefore it served as a market for British products. According to Horne (2003) a large number of foods was imported along with books, fabrics, footwear, equipment and tools. Furthermore the Americans occupied agricultural areas such as Valencia which provided fruits; vegetables and carenage for fishing however German submarines invaded the waters during the war and ships were torpedoed causing a shortage in food. This led to a new system of retailing fish and crops and the cost of living rose. On the contrary, the oil industry experienced a boom, according to the Library of Congress (1987), the real gross domestic product increased an average of 8.5 percent annually from 1951 to 1961 and growth averaged 10 percent annually from 1956 to 1961. The real per capita income increased 15 percent. Oil, construction, and manufacturing emerged as dominant industrial sectors. In 1956 a United States oil company, Texaco, entered Trinidad and Tobago and consolidated several holdings of other companies. Oil production jumped from under 60,000 barrels per day prior to 1950 to 80,000 barrels per day toward the end of the decade. In addition, the price of oil continued to rise, allowing for increased oil earnings and growing government revenues (Library of Congress, 1987). Prior to the Americans in Trinidad, more than 10,000 poor women were employed in domestic work, by teenage years; girls had already mastered cooking, cleaning, ironing, and laundering. According to Neptune domestic work accounted for 36% of the islands wages-earning females in the 1930s; however these women endured terrible working conditions in which they worked from dawn till late night for $4 to $10 dollar. In the midst of American arrival where no prevailing wages policy, they offered higher rates than the British and thereby servants began deserting the British colonial employers. According to Neptune, the colonys housewives were in a frenzy causing social friction between Americans and understaffed Trinidadians. However it drove the administration to establish a vocational education committee to oversee the training of domestic workers to improve the dispute between servants and their employers. The American base also brought on a spending economy where there was a boost in the services such as hotels, bars and small businesses. The American base in Trinidad also brought on negative effects on the economy, according to Horne (2003) the government of Trinidad and Tobago incurred a number of expense during the stay of the American Base. The government had to maintain and upkeep the roads used freely by the American official vehicles stationed at the bases, because the agreement exempt from license and registration fees. Secondly the government had to maintain the airport and maintenance cost increased due to the damage to the runaways from heavy military planes. Thirdly the landing and parking fees of the aircraft were free, moreover Trinidad revenue suffer since the government lost 1 million dollars in revenue from excise duties through the delivery at each Base of 10 million gallons of gasoline, 1 million gallons of kerosene duty free( Horne, 2003). Infrastructure The building of the American base launched extensive infrastructure projects for example construction of better roads, causing construction to more than double in over ten years. The American Navy Construction Brigade constructed road to Maracas Bay as compensation for the loss of North West Peninsula (Brereton, 1982) Manufacturings output, encouraged by generous fiscal incentives since 1950, also increased rapidly, although its share of gross domestic product rose from 11 to 13 percent. (Library of Congress, 1987). Culture The American culture also impacted on Trinidad such as their dress mode in which locals admired and adopted. According to Harvey Neptune in November 1939, a small number of Port of Spain office workers issued a plea for cooler dressing; their request was ignored until the arrival of the Americans. On September 16 1941, a policy was created declaring coat, tie and long pants optional work wear and the acceptance of open neck shirts and short pants. Neptune stated that the some expressed grief, saying it was a breakdown of standard respectability and policy for dress reform showed the government supported social disorder. A number of critics who were committed to the British dress style protested against the governments decision, a Port of Spain layer and city deputy, Leo Pujadas, expressed his anger with the dress reform policy saying it was a drastic change and would weaken the social standard of traditional dress. The dress reform was linked to the Yankee culture, in which they would go to church wearing short-sleeved shirts that was out of their pants and no coats. According to Neptune, Pujadas viewed that it was a way of emulating the irresponsible Americans and hoped that Trinidadians continued to adopt the Europeans fashion style. Another critic expressed his view that with the dress reform people would not be able to distinguish the lads from the grownups and others saw it as a decline of civilization (Neptune, 1970). In today society, Trinidadians dress code is unconventional and westernized; this is dated back from World War II and has become prominent with easier access to westernized culture particularly the United States of America. Social Changes The American base did not only trigger drastic economical and infrastructural changes in Trinidad, it also generated substantial social transformation. Traditionally women who bears a child out of wedlock was looked down on, however to the people who came to work on the bases held that position that a young woman did not have to wait till marriage to carry a child. Secondly with the large number of American soldiers entering the country, prostitution became prominent, and brothels were constructed nearby the base. Calypso in Trinidad was a medium of story telling events in the society, Calypsonians during this time sang about the increase of prostitution with the building of the American base. Lord Invaders song, Rum and Coca Cola (See Appendix B) in 1943 proclaimed women in Trinidad working for American money which referred to the enormous increase in Trinidadian women who were making their living as prostitutes with American soldiers as their clients. His lyrics stated If a Yankee comes to Trinidad, they got the young girls all going mad, Young girls say they treat them nice and Both mother and daughter, Working for the Yankee dollar (ITZCaribbean, 2004). These lyrics illustrate the locals referring the American soldiers as Yankees, and it talks about women working for American soldiers referring to prostitution. In 1945, an American group called the Andrews Sisters sang over the song which became a hit in the United States. In 1956, another calypsonian known as The Mighty Sparrow released a song called Jean and Dinah (See Appendix C) also proclaiming prostitution during and after the closing of the American base. His words were Well the girls in town feeling bad, No more Yankees in Trinidad. They going to close down the base for good, Them girls have to make out how they could and So when you bounce up Jean and Dinah, Rosita and Clementina, round the corner posing, Bet your life is something they selling, And if you catch them, You can get them all for nothing, Dont make no row, the Yankees gone, Sparrow take over now (elyrics, 2000)Again in sparrow lyrics American soldiers are referred to as Yankees, in addition he spoke about the large scale prostitution that the bases once supported and the desperation of these prostitutes following the closure of several American military bases  in Trinidad in the post war period. The American base did not only bring social issues to Trinidad but musicians were able to create music from American materials, according to Horne (2003) when the British captured Trinidad from Spain the Carnival festival was allowed to continue. Musicians at the time of poor areas used dry bamboo sticks as percussion instruments to accompany their parades however these illegal. With World War II and the entering of the Americans in Trinidad who brought fifty-five gallon steal oil drums, the Trinidadian musicians improvised and used these drums. They made dents, various cavities such as depth and shallow as well as different sizes which produced various musical sounds and scales. Musicians were poor and no formal musical training however they were able to coordinate and memorize the musical notes, thus the steel band was born (Horne, 2003). Today steel band is very popular and developed not only in Trinidad and Caribbean Islands but it is known throughout the world Another impact of the American base in Trinidad was the locals view on the American status. Trinidadians were not only attracted to the wages offered by the Americans, locals were in elated of the American outlook towards the base, Locals drawn towards the American base because of the adventure of the employment in which the base offered. According to Neptune working for Americans presented the opportunity to participate in an exciting new world and the desire for liberty and novelty by young people were satisfied by working on the base. Neptune referenced Samuel Selvons, A Brighter Sun, a story in about an Indo-Trinidadian called Bunsee become comically pompous and fancied himself as a man of prestige because had an office job with the Americans. The story demonstrated how American employment satisfied ambitions for progress into a modern world. Neptune also made reference to V.S Naipuals Miguel Street demonstrating the downside of the America base, in which the story talk about a c haracter Hat, who appreciated that the American base was not here forever and it would not be smart to give up their jobs. Neptune also stated that other locals stayed away because base work was not in harmony with traditional concept of respectability (Neptune, 1970). The American base also brought crime and violence, during the American stay in Trinidad, the governor allowed the entry of Barbados immigrants to work for the Americans, In March 1942, a totally of 2,000 laborers came to Trinidad to work for the American at a rate of $1.19 (Neptune, 1970), with this the Americans layed off over a hundred locals thereby causing antagonism towards the Barbadians by the locals. On April 3, 1942, a group of Barbadians workers attacked and injured a number of locals at the Arima Princess cinema. The U.S authorities in an attempt to keep peace among the locals and issued a public notice stating that Barbadians were not the reason for the laying off the locals however the British sent home the Barbados workers to reduce the risk of violence. Secondly, racial tension emerged; locals were aggravated with American men since women were lured to them and would prostitute themselves. American were seen as superior by locals since they earned enormous amounts of m oney, in addition, their fashion and language were all factors that the locals admired. Conclusion World War II profoundly transformed the economy and society of Trinidad and Tobago as an outcome of the Base for Destroyers Agreement between the United States of America and Britain. Both positive and negative effects of the American base were evident. The American base in Trinidad made immense changes in the trade industry in which agriculture decreased and oil boomed. A large number of employment opportunities were created on the base as well as increased wages for workers on the base as well as domestic workers. The American base created the rise in prostitution and violence however it also created development of steel pan, according to Brereton (1982) it dismissed the myths of white supremacy as they, too, performed manual labor and consumed their earnings alongside Trinidadians. Brereton also went on to state that the presence of the United States helped prepare the country for the new era of mass electoral political (Brereton, 1982). The Americans in Trinidad also influenced t he locals style of fashion; locals also admired the American competence, technological advancement and status. Although the government suffered revenue due to maintenance of road and airports, the beneficial influence the American had on Trinidad was much greater.

Drug Smuggling in Malaysia Essay -- Legal Issues, Drugs, Drug Mule

Drug smuggling cases have created a grave concerns in Malaysia. As I go through the â€Å"Special Report : Decline in Drug Mules† 2010 by BERNAMA, I feel impel to discuss further about this issue. In this article, the definition of drug mule is not given. But, I have come across a definition from Smith (2010) which stated that drug mules are people whose bodies are used to transport drugs to another country. Moreover, Kusyi (2010) defined drug mule as a phrase that refers to someone who is willing or duped to be a courier, carrying drugs or smuggling drugs to other countries. So we can conclude that drug mule is an illegal action that opposes the law throughout the countries. According to BERNAMA (2010), it is estimated that about 1490 Malaysians are now languishing in foreign prisons for drug related offences including drug mules. For me, it is quite a number to be worried of. Our country will experience a great loss of local energies if the number continues to grow. However, the statistics from Bukit Aman show a steep decline in number of Malaysians being detained in foreign lands for carrying drugs in 2010 compared to the previous year (BERNAMA, 2010). As a generation of future leaders, I realize despite the fact that the cases reported is decreasing, the problem is indeed critical and if we stay still from the beginning, I strongly believe it could jeopardize our nation’s future. Thus, we should give serious attention to this problem as this article also reported that the members of international drug syndicates are still actively recruiting new innocent victims of drug mules although in smaller numbers. To begin with, this article has emphasized the victims of the syndicates which are identified to be in between 20s and 30s ... ...hich depicts that they are not afraid of the punishment. To sum up, I agree with all factors and suggestions highlighted in this article. I think this report has succeeded in helping me to realize the significance of this problem and has encouraged me to share my opinions to help the government to eradicate this menace. However, deeper explanations should be included and added so that readers will gain more information about this crime from all aspects. I really hope that we can give our helping hands to fight this menace. Prevention is better than cure. Lastly, I agree with Kusyi (2010) when she said that if ago, parents worries when their children went abroad were about halal food, marry a foreigner, forget their origins and their religion or do not want to return home, now parents have to ensure one more thing which is do not let your child be a drug mule!

Explore the significance of the past in the play “Long Day’s Journey Into Night” by Eugene O’Neill Essay

At the very start of Long Day’s Journey Into Night, O’Neill sets the scene for the theme of the past being integral to the play directly with the dedication to the love and tenderness of his wife – â€Å"†¦ which gave me the faith in love that enabled me to face my dead at last and write this play – write it with deep pity and understanding and forgiveness for all of the four haunted Tyrones.† This admittance that the play was written as a sort of autobiography, a partial re- telling of O’Neill’s personal history, means that it seems almost intrinsically connected to the past right from the beginning, the intimation from the author being that he wrote it as a form of catharsis in order to deal with the real events from his own life. Consequently the theme of the past is introduced before even the first Act has begun. The idea that he is ‘facing his dead’ is a particularly apt one as at the time of writing the play, the people upon whom its characters are based – O’Neill’s family – had all passed away some years before. His father, mother and elder brother Jamie are all portrayed in the same roles in the play as they had in real life, and with similar histories. The only alteration is that instead of the middle son being named Edmund, O’Neill changes the baby’s name to his own, and calls it Eugene, having the fictional Edmund take the place of himself within the family. The main way in which the characters seem constantly to trap themselves in the past is through their constant blaming of the present upon past events. There is nothing in the present to which they do not attribute any blame, and none of them in any way seem to blame themselves for what has happened to them, preferring instead to blame each other. Consequently none of their conversations can be held without somehow referring to the past, as it is the past upon which they have built their relationships with each other. The relationship between Tyrone and Jamie for example is one in which Jamie blames Tyrone for his miserliness with his money, which he believes is what led to his mother’s addiction to morphine, and her recent unhappiness which caused her to return to the drug. Tyrone blames his son for being an â€Å"evil-minded loafer†, and says thats’notes he is responsible both for making nothing of his own life, and also for leading Edmund astray. In fact, the blame for these character defects does not lie within Tyrone or Jamie as personalities, but rather with the circumstances which caused these traits. For Jamie, his alcoholism and cynicism are largely to do with his discovery of his mother’s drug addiction when he was younger – it is made clear that prior to this discovery, Jamie was talented and enthusiastic, excelling at school and clearly liked by many people. He himself admits that the event had a large bearing on his life in just the same way that he has resorted to alcohol in order to purge himself of the same sort of knowledge about Edmund – â€Å"Christ, I’d never dreamed before that any women but whores took dope! And then this stuff of you getting consumption. It’s got me licked†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Jamie’s cynicism clearly did not exist before he discovered that his mother used morphine, or at least not to the same degree, the fact that he’d ‘never dreamed’ of the idea effective in suggesting how completely distant it was from his mind – and therefore how different his mind must have been from its present s tate of suspicion. The circumstance precipitating Tyrone’s miserliness were similarly ones which he himself did not contrive – when he was only ten years old, his father abandoned the family and Tyrone was forced to go and find work, living a large part of his life in poverty. It is this which has made him so conservative with his money, and reluctant to expend more than is absolutely necessary, preferring to invest it in property, which he believes is the best way to keep it safe. The power of money over him is made particularly clear when the audience are told that, despite his obvious love of acting, he chose financial success over furthering his career, thereby ruining his chances of achieving his ultimate goals. This culture of blame without moving on from it, or attempting to understand the source of it is one of the key factors in preventing the family from escaping from their past – rather every event in the present is related back to some previous action or accusation, without any hope of ever resolving it. This is encapsulated in Mary’s comment â€Å"It’s wrong to blame your brother. He can’t help being what the past has made him. Any more than your father can. Or you. Or I.† – the idea that the whole family has been moulded by past events and cannots’notes move on from them permeates every conversation, as they each hold the other somehow responsible for what has occurred – and because they believe that they themselves should not be blamed for what they did, none of them will accept their portion of the responsibility, nor learn from what has happened. Throughout the play we see the same basic errors happening time and time again – the nature of the tendency of each character to continually place blame for the present on something which another did in the past means that the occurrences of the past are constantly being bought forward into the present, and because no character will accept their blame, there seems to be no way to move forward into a future which is not largely concerned with what has happened before. What this ultimately leads to is a past which is largely cyclical. As no character will relinquish their grip on the past and what has happened before, by accepting blame from it, or learning from it, the same problems and occurrences repeat themselves. For example, Mary resumes taking her morphine, just as she had done before, and despite seeing the same signs leading up to it as before, the family, with the exception of Jamie, remain blind to it for some time. Tyrone is continually cheated out of money by McGuire, whose questionable skills as a property realtor hardly ever yield any profit to Tyrone himself – and yet he does not learn from his past either, and continues to do the same thing at no gain to himself. Their sheer inability to take anything from the past, or to leave it alone, means that nothing in the play is occurring for the first time – in a way, everything about the present in which the Tyrones are living is also the past. A quote from Mary – â€Å"The past is the present, isn’t it? It’s the future, too†¦Ã¢â‚¬  – is particularly fitting to explain the way in which they are living. The structure of the novel echoes this confusion of times – the play occurs all in the space of one day, and yet it deals with the problems both of the future and of the forty or so years previous. This idea that everything is simply a recurrence of something which has happened before -and what will continue to happen for the rest of time- is analogous to the title, in that everything could simply have happened in one â€Å"Long Day†, with the past, present and future simply merging into one twenty-four hour time periods’notes Living one’s life trapped in a repeating cycle of the past is not particularly conducive to being happy, as there is no real hope to look forward to when you are simply repeating the same things over and over again- as Jamie says, â€Å"†¦ weary roads is right. Get you nowhere fast. That’s where I’ve got-nowhere. Where everyone lands in the end, even if most of the suckers won’t admit it†, and so all of the characters have devised their own way of ‘escaping’, which controls the way in which they act throughout the play. For Jamie, the feeling that he hasn’t actually achieved anything because he has never been able to move on is something that he only finally admits to when drunk, but which reveals the sense of hopelessness he feels from being stuck in a loop. Slightly later in the play he confides to Edmund â€Å"I’d begun to hope, if she’d beaten the game, I could, too†¦Ã¢â‚¬  – his hope that his mother had shrugged off her addiction, and that the future would no longer be a repetition of the past had been very important to him, as it offered a way out. However, that hope disappeared, and he resorted back to his usual escape of drinking alcohol, which is what he does for most of the duration of the play. Tyrone also drinks in order to escape the past, although unlike Jamie he also attempts to escape the repetition of the past by denying the fact that it is being repeated – he refuses to recognise Mary’s symptoms until they are undeniably obvious, preferring to believe her lies rather than admit to what is going on. In that respect, he is unlike Jamie, whose cynicism prevents him from being able to overlook things as he chooses. Mary, however, does not attempt to escape the past in the same way that Jamie and Tyrone do, but prefers, though the use of morphine, to escape the present and return to the happiest phase of her life, during the early years of her marriage to Tyrone and her time at the convent, playing the piano. Reminders of the present, such as her hands, which have become unsightly due to rheumatoid arthritis, appal her, and as the play progresses and the morphine takes her over more and more, she regresses further and further back into the past. Her reaction to this re-living of the past is to attempt to return to her favoured part of it. Edmund’s attempt to escape the past is most notable in that at one point, he actually did succeed – during his time sailing, he says that he â€Å"became drunk withs’notes the beauty and the singing rhythm of it, and for a moment I lost myself – actually lost my life. I was set free!†. The idea that he became ‘drunk’ with it alludes to Tyrone and Jamie’s drunken attempts to escape the past, although where they used alcohol, it seems that he used nature – he continues to refer to other occasions when he has felt free in a similar way, and all of them took place in a natural setting. For an audience, this liberation and sense of the natural world starkly contrasts with the three rooms and claustrophobic conversation in which the play is set, and so it is an excellent way to illustrate the total freedom which Edmund has attained. Edmund attempts to recreate this sensation by trying to express it through the use of poetry – however, he says that he will never truly be able to express it how he would like to, saying that even what he just said was just ‘stammering’. â€Å"Stammering is the native eloquence of us fog people†, is the way in which Edmund describes his inability to describe the feeling – this reference to fog people is particularly interesting as throughout the play, the fog is almost a symbol of the past. As the day wears on, the fog returns to cloud over the landscape around them, and so Mary’s illness returns to cloud over the present and send her further back into the past. This pathetic fallacy of the weather responding to Mary’s haziness in her own mind is also effective in creating the sense of claustrophobia which comes from being trapped in the same circumstances over and over again – just as the fog can be very claustrophobic and hide everything else from view, so the past traps the family in and prevents them from seeing the present clearly. Edmund also suggests in that quote that the whole family are ‘native’ fog people – almost that there is something about the way in which they live which they cannot help, but which they are genetically programmed to do. This is curious because it is perhaps the most impartial opinion expressed by one of the characters, and entirely without blame on any one of them. This perceptiveness of Edmund and the ability to reflect ‘from a distance’ on what is going on is perhaps due to the fact that he is acting as the author’s representation of himself. Another role of the past in the play is that it motivates the creation of an atmosphere of censorship and non-admittance. The audience is slow to find out s’notes about the exact nature of Mary’s illness, for example, because the characters do not want to talk about the worse aspects of what happened before, and so as a topic of conversation it is forbidden by unvoiced consent until eventually Jamie faces up to the fact that she seems to be returning to her old condition. This state of affairs seems to have come about as a form of resistance – as if by not speaking about something, they will somehow avoid it happening again and be able to continue as normal. Similarly Mary and Edmund attempt to pretend, to varying degrees, that his illness is other than it is – Mary by calling it a cold and dismissing it, and Edmund to a lesser extent by calling it Malaria, which is more easily cursed, and continuing to drink as if he were not at risk of damaging his healt h. It is clear that the family refuse to talk about quite a number of incidents and feelings – things which only really come out when they are under the effect of either alcohol or morphine – such as the death of Eugene and Mary’s incident on the dock in her nightgown, because such events unlock emotions and feelings which they have hidden in order to protect each other. Mary doesn’t talk about how she blames Jamie for giving Eugene the measles, or how she blames Edmund for her drug addiction when she is in her right state of mind, because she realises that those aspects of the past are too hurtful. Tyrone attempts to prevent her from continuing to speak of them when she does begin, in case one of the boys should hear. Although the past is virtually all that is discussed, there are certain sections of it which the family attempt to bury behind them. The main occurrence of the play is the return of Mary’s ‘illness’ – her return to taking morphine, and other than this very little else actually physically happens to any of the characters during the play. That her illness is actually characterised by a return to the past is particularly important as regards the past as a theme behind the play. It is quite clear to the audience that what Mary is experiencing – this return to her past – is an actual physical illness, and that something is definitely wrong with her mind. This leads to the consideration that the whole family’s return to the past could also be deemed an ‘illness’, and without the presence of Mary’s actual illness it would not be as easy to see that the frame of mind in which the Tyrones live is somehow unhealthy. Mary’s s’notes regression into her past also serves to reveal a great deal of truths about the other characters in the play and what had happened to them before, as well as a number of the deeper-held secrets which the family usually did not discuss, such as Eugene’s death and where the blame for it lies. That the rest of the family seem ashamed that Mary would make such an accusation and blame it on her mental instability, when they are perfectly happy to blame and accuse each other all the time is rather ironic, and so Mary’s illness serves to highlight the problems with the rest of the family and the way in which they function. In terms of the message of the play, and what the audience take away with them, it seems that the past is also of significance, in that the play is something of a warning as to what the consequences might be if people never moved on. Of course, it is therefore quite appropriate that O’Neill wrote it as a part of his own moving on, and his own way of putting the past behind him. The ending of the play is almost anticlimactic in that it just finishes, with no conclusion or rounding-off of the story – simply that the end of the day has been reached, and this too mirrors the idea that there is no end and therefore no past when the past is relived as if it is the present and the future, too. Of all the themes in the play, the past is by far the most significant of them all, not least because the author wrote it as a semi-autobiographical work. It is the driving force behind the way the characters act, the way they interact and the way in which the atmosphere deteriorates from a rather hopeful one at the beginning of the play into one rather devoid of hope at the end, as the ‘Long Day’s Journey Into Night’ is completed, with Mary fully under the influence of the morphine and the other characters having apparently given up on her salvation and also their own conversation. The feeling of being trapped in the past – what O’Neill was attempting to get rid of by ‘facing his dead’ and writing it all down as a work of fiction – dominates the atmosphere of the play, without which the power of the piece would be lost.

Research Proposal Essays - Economy, Business, Marketing, Sales

Research Proposal Essays - Economy, Business, Marketing, Sales Research Proposal REDUCING THE TIME AND EXPENSE CREATING PROPOSALS PRESENTED TO: Jill Marhefka Professor of Business Research, BSAD 400 . Tracy E. Baker October 11th, 1999 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 BACK GROUND INFORMATION 2 PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4 ESTIMATES OF COST AND SCHEDULE 6 QUALIFICATION OF REASEACHER 8 APPENDIX 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AUTOMATING TO MEET THE NEEDS OF XYZ CONSTRUCTION COMPANY Proposals are extremely important tools in construction, sales and marketing efforts but they also pose some serious challenges. These are some of the specific problems our company is facing: Inefficient delivery of information where and when its needed Lack of tools to help construction sales people to work productively Difficulty in completing and delivering quality proposals quickly Construction sales people are experiencing too much desk time and not enough face time as they wrestle with the challenge of preparing proactive proposals Inconsistent looking proposals that contain conflicting and sometimes incorrect information The main goal of this project is to research a specific need expressed by members of the Proposal Development Group and Sales Department, that is the need for an industry specific Proposal Software Program. As outlined in the proposal, this is to be accomplished through significant interaction between the researchers, Information Management department and experts in the Proposal Development Group and Sales Department. This type of cooperative agreement is seen as fundamental to the success of all projects. BACKGROUND INFORMATION THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF A PROPOSAL WRITER PROGRAM ON XYZ COMPANY XYZ Company has generated 1,000 proposals (of which 30 percent are less complex; 70 percent more complex) during FY 1999. Members of the XYZs Proposal Group have spent approximately 46,000 hours in proposal writing! This however, does not include revisions made due to addendums to R.F.P.s. Below is a summary of cost incurred by the XYZ Company through FY 1999. It should be noted that XYZ Company has generated hard copies of every proposal written for not only the clientele but also our Sales Executives, in order to keep them abreast of changes. This was to ensure that the Sales Executive could respond to all questions as concisely and efficiently as possible. Proposals Written Proposal Addendums Time to write one proposal 16 hoursless complex 60 hourscomplex Approximately 1 hour less complex 12 hours complex Overhead charge rate for a proposal writer's time $45.00/hr $45.00/hr Number of proposals / addendums written each year 300 less complex 700 complex 200 Per 1000 proposals Approximate total costs $2,160,000.00+ $391,500.00 PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF A PROPOSAL WRITER PROGRAM ON XYZ COMPANY Problem Statement The proposal processes in the construction industry is intensive. Many tasks are highly repetitive, and may require significant F.T.E. (full time equivalent) man-hours to produce. Many jobs require numerous revisions when posed with addendums to the RFP by owners who are uncertain of their wants and needs. The Management Problem Is As Stated Below: Can we develop a software package that will meet the guidelines of the Proposal Development group and the Sales department? Objectives: (1.0) To ensure the potential system will function with the data structures used within our system. (2.0) To develop a software program which will formulate faster responses to R.F.P.s. (3.0) To create a well-designed system which is easy to learn. (4.0) To determine if a pricing engine is needed within the data structure. (5.0) To asses the need for a sales and marketing database. (6.0) To evaluate the need to develop a clientele database. (7.0) To investigate the potential of reduction of overall paper usage. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF A PROPOSAL WRITER PROGRAM ON XYZ COMPANY Research Design The Information Gathered will be representative of the Information Management group, the Proposal Development group, and the Sales Executives. The Information management group will be surveyed independently from the Proposal Development group and the Sales Executives, however, there will be a set of questions on each of the two surveys that are identical. This will be detailed in the Proposed Data Collection section. All information Gathered will be utilized in the evaluation of the potential for the development and or feasibility of development concerning the afore mentioned proposal software. Proposed Data Collection Procedures To ensure the potential system will function with the data structures used within our system, and to create a well-designed system, which is easy to learn, Information management will be surveyed independently of the Proposal Development group and the Sales Executives. To determine if a pricing engine is needed

Critical Analysis of the Strategic human resource management in India The WritePass Journal

Critical Analysis of the Strategic human resource management in India Abstract Critical Analysis of the Strategic human resource management in India AbstractIntroductionSHRM literature: DevelopmentsBackground: Choice of countryProcedure for review of articlesResearch questionsScope of the reviewIdentification of articlesCharacteristics of the reviewed studiesConclusionReferencesRelated Abstract The last two decades have witnessed many developments in the research and practice of managing human resources. While the debate began with a consideration of the changing role of HRM, more recently there has been increased interest in conceptualizing and testing the links between business strategy and performance. In India, research in the area of HRM gained recognition with the ushering in of the new economic era of liberalisation during the early 1990s. The primary objective of this article is to provide a synthesis of the strategic human resource management (SHRM) literature as it relates to India. Specifically, this review will consider the dominant theoretical perspectives adopted by scholars; ways in which HRM and performance are defined and operationalised; the approach taken to research design along with noting the control and contingency variables used. The review also draws out the potential contributions of the existing studies to solving the ‘black box’ prob lem. Finally, the article also presents the implications for future research on SHRM in India. Keywords: India, Strategic human resource management, HRM, firm performance Introduction Empirical research in the field of SHRM has proliferated significantly since the seminal work of Huselid in 1995. Many recent studies have discussed SHRM in the Asia-Pacific context (Audea, Teo, and Crawford 2005; Bae et al. 2003; Benson and Rowley 2003; Wan, Kok, and Ong 2002). Furthermore, the growth of India as an emerging market prompted institutions such as the World Bank to project the country as the world’s fourth largest economy by 2020 (Budhwar and Varma 2010). This increasing focus on India makes it an interesting setting for this study. The review aims to provide a synthesis of literature in the area of HRM and performance linkages in India. The study reviewed articles between 2003 (first empirical article: Singh 2003) and 2010 in academic journals, focusing on the HRM and performance debate. Specifically, this review will consider the dominant theoretical perspectives adopted by scholars; ways in which HRM and performance are defined and operationalised; the approa ch taken to research design along with noting the control and contingency variables used.   Finally, the review also examines the potential contributions of the reviewed articles to solving the ‘black box’ problem. This article is organised as follows. The first section reviews the extant literature on SHRM.   The next section discusses the need for a review of SHRM in India. The third section outlines the research methodology used in this paper. The final sections discuss the results and present the main conclusions and implications of this study. SHRM literature: Developments Lengnick-Hall et al. (2009) identified seven themes across time in the SHRM literature: (1) explaining contingency perspectives and fit, (2) shifting from a focus on managing people to creating strategic contributions, (3) elaborating HR system components and structure, (4) expanding the scope of SHRM, (5) achieving HR implementation and execution, (6) measuring outcomes of SHRM, and (7) evaluating methodological issues. Each of these themes played a significant role in the evolution of the field. Empirical research has suggested a relation between HRM practices (whether as individual practices or as a bundle) and organizational performance (Paauwe 2009). Wright and Boswell (2002) proposed a typology of HRM research based on two dimensions: level of analysis (individual/ organizational) and number of practices (single/ multiple). Many articles published after Huselid (1995) have not only analysed the effects on performance at an individual practice level like recruitment and selection (e.g. Koch and McGrath 1996), performance related pay (e.g. Dowling and Richardson 1997; Lazear 1996; McNabb and Whitfield 1997), training and development (e.g. Kalleberg and Moody 1994), and internal career possibilities (e.g. Verburg 1998), but also at multiple practice level, that is, bundles or combinations of HR practices (e.g. Arthur 1994; Gould-Williams 2003, 2007; Guest, Conway, Dewe 2004; Subramony 2009). At the multiple practice level, it is possible to analyse HR practices as a system, which has been referred as a high performance work system (e.g. Huselid 1995) or as a HR practice configuration (e.g. Delery and Doty 1996; Delery 1998). Delery (1998) suggests four types of possible relationships as: a) additive (where each HR practice has its own, unique effect on performance outcomes); b) interactive (the effect of each practice depends on the up-take of other practices within the bundle); c) positively synergistic (some HR practices mutually complement each other); and d) negatively synergistic (an inappropriate combination of HR practices that leads to more negative consequences than the mere absence of the practice).   Ã‚  More recently, Subramony (2009) categorized the HRM bundles as a) empowerment- enhancing (those HR practices that boost employee autonomy and responsibility levels); b) motivation-enhancing (bundles that provide employees with adequate levels of direction an d inducements); and c) skill-enhancing (bundles that augment the knowledge and skill levels of the workforce). It is now generally accepted that human resource management bundles can favourably affect the performance of business firms. The treatment of HR practices as a bundle is more effective than as an individual practice; when considering its impact on performance (MacDuffie 1995; Ichniowski 1997; Guest 2004). Though empirical research suggests that there is an association between HRM and performance, there is little understanding of the mechanisms through which HRM practices influence effectiveness (Delery 1998, 289). This largely unexplained facet of the HRM-performance relationship has been labelled the â€Å"black box† (Boselie et al. 2005). The discussion on the black box problem was triggered by Guest (1997) when he stated the need for more theory driven research in the area of HRM, performance and the linkages between the two concepts. Legge (2001, 30) reiterated the ‘need to open up the ‘black box’ of the process that links HRM and organizational performance’. Background: Choice of country India has been chosen as the research context for the following key reasons. India is one of the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) countries. Indian economy grew by 7.4 percent over the fiscal year 2009-10 (FICCI 2010). The sustained performance has been guided by robust growth in both service and manufacturing sector. The Indian economy adopted a structural adjustment programme at the beginning of 1991. The structural adjustment programme or liberalization initiated the process of the opening up of an otherwise closed economy of India (Som 2008). Thereby, an increasing need to understand HRM practices in India since the 1990s emerged since liberalisation of economic policies took place (Budhwar and Sparrow 1997). The operation of large number of MNCs in India has fuelled the need for the top managers of these organizations to learn about the nature of HR systems appropriate for the Indian context. HRM in India has rapidly evolved into a specialized function in organisations (Budhwar et al. 2009; Budhwar and Varma 2010), especially in the last two decades. Indian national context is marked by regional, sectoral, socio-cultural, institutional, and economic-political variations. Thus, the nature of the HR function varies from traditional personnel administration to strategic HRM/HRD. Numerous studies have explored the impact of HRM practices on firm performance in western economies like US and UK (e.g. Huselid 1995; Becker and Grehart 1996; Ichniowski 1997; Becker and Huselid 1998; Wood 1999), whereas there is a dearth of empirical research in non-westernised context, specifically India. Given, these factors, we would argue that the contextual focus of this review is justified. This study aims to review the body of literature from a theoretical and methodological perspective. Formalized personnel functions have been existent in Indian organizations since 1920s in India (Budhwar and Sparrow 1997; Rao 1999; Budhwar 2001). The personnel function then was primarily driven by the concern for labour welfare in factories. The personnel function started expanding beyond the welfare aspect into the three areas- labour welfare, industrial relations, and personnel administration in the 1960s. In the 1970s, the focus of personnel function shifted toward greater organizational ‘efficiency’. By the 1980s, terms such as HRM and HRD gained importance (Rao 1999). The 1990s saw a rapid change in the HRM function due to ushering in of liberalisation (Som 2007, 2008, 2010; Budhwar and Varma, 2010). Budhwar and Varma (2010) analysed the HRM literature in the Indian context and revealed that research has been pursued on a very broad variety of subjects. These   include (1) the evolution of the personnel function in India, (2) the role of unions and industrial relations in the new economic environment, (3) factors determining HRM, (4) HRM and firm performance (e.g. Singh 2003; Chand 2010), (5) HRM in MNCs operating in India (Budhwar and Bhatnagar 2009; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007), (6) strategic integration and devolvement of HRM (e.g. Budhwar and Sparrow 1997); (7) organizational learning capability (e.g. Bhatnagar 2007), (8) employee relations, (9) turnover issues (e.g., Budhwar et al. 2009; SamGnanakkan 2010; Krishnan and Singh 2010), (10) comparative HR in public and private sector organizations (e.g. Budhwar and Boyne 2004), (11) emerging patterns of HRM in the business outsourcing sector (e.g. Budhwar et al. 2006), (12) the applicability of Western HR models in India, (13) H RD and training, and (14) comparative HR between India and other countries (e.g., Lawler et al. 1995; Budhwar and Khatri 2001; Budhwar and Sparrow 2002; Varma, Pichler, and Srinivas 2005; Woldu, Budhwar, and Parkes 2006). While there is a significant increase in volume of empirical research in India, there is no previous study that has reviewed SHRM in India. Thus for the purposes of the current study, the review will expand upon one major sub-theme- HRM and firm performance. The next section presents the procedure adopted for this review. Procedure for review of articles Research questions To accomplish the study objectives, the following research questions were posed. How have HRM practices been operationalised? How has the concept of performance been operationalised? What has been the dominant theoretical perspective that has been adopted? What were the sample characteristics of the research study (e.g. individuals, workplaces, industries or sectors etc.)? Who are the respondents (e.g. Single rater vs multiple raters per unit of analysis or Single vs multiple actors? What data collection methods have been used (e.g. case study, survey, interviews, large scale secondary data etc.)? Does the study deal with how HR practices linkages with performance (Black Box problem)? What are some of the areas future research should focus on? The following sub sections discuss the scope of review and identification of articles. Scope of the review There are four important criteria used in selecting articles for review. First, the articles were based on empirical research. Thus, conceptual papers were left out from the review. Second, the articles analysed data from workplaces in India. Third, articles used HRM practices and firm performance as variables. Fourth, articles had to be published in English. Also, the review excludes research published in books, conference proceedings and unpublished dissertations. Identification of articles There are 20empirical articles in total which study the impact of HRM practices in India. The literature search was conducted using the following databases- ABI/ Inform, Academic Search Premier, Emerald Fulltext, EBSCO. The search was based on three key descriptors ‘human resource management practices’, ‘firm performance’ and ‘India’. The full text was reviewed in order to eliminate those articles that were not actually related to HRM practices and firm performance. Empirical studies with specific focus on India and Asia have been presented in special issues of international journals like Journal of World Business (39(4), 2004), Employee Relations (29 (6), 2007), Human Resource Management (47 (1), 2008; 49 (3), 2010). Thus, an exclusive search was conducted in these issues. A total of 20 articles from 14 journals met the selecting criteria. A list of journals contributing these articles is given in Table 1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insert Table 1 here Characteristics of the reviewed studies Table 2 summarises the empirical studies reviewed in the study. Studies in Table 2 differ in sample size and demographic characteristics, industry context, operationalisation of HRM and performance, data collection and analytical method, directions for future research. Each of these aspects is discussed in the subsequent sections. Drawing on an extensive body of SHRM literature, we isolate potential research areas for investigation in India.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Insert Table 2 here Operationalisation of HRM One of the significant conceptual issues involves understanding how the central construct in this literature, the human resource system, affects firm performance outcomes. Many researchers (Guest 1997, 2001; Boselie et al. 2005, Paauwe 2009) have shared the concern of lack of theory in conceptualisation of HRM, performance and its subsequent link. Hesketh and Fleetwood (2006) contend even if there was sufficient conclusive evidence for statistical association between HRM practices and organizational performance, it is not enough to explain the association. Another significant issue that has been raised in SHRM literature is the distinction between HR policies and practices (Purcell et al. 2003). The policies refer to the stated firm’s intentions whereas the practices are established on observable, actual activities operationalised in the firm (Wright and Boswell 2002; Wright and Nishii 2004). Paauwe and Boselie (2005) state that the majority of previous studies focus on intended HR practices rather than the ‘actual’ HR practices or the employees’ perception of them.   Also, Purcell and Hutchinson (2007) discuss the role of front line managers (FLMs) in ascertaining the level of employee commitment. They argue that the outcome impact on employee attitudes of HRM policies would be more positive if the FLM leadership behaviour is also perceived as positive. Thus, it is argued that research would be more appropriate if it considers multi-actor respondents e.g worker, FLM and employer perceptions. An important finding is that the reviewed studies have used various measures of HR practices. This is consistent with the empirical literature in the West where there is no definite operationalisation of HRM (Paauwe 2009). Another important finding is some studies, such as Paul and Anantharaman (2003) built an industry-specific instrument to measure HR practices. Ketkar and Sett (2010) have extended Wright and Snell’s conceptualisation of HR flexibility. All other reviewed studies have adopted measures from either existing literature on high involvement HRM (e.g. Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007, SamGnanakkan 2010), innovation, high commitment or progressive HR practices (e.g. Som 2008; Cooke and Saini 2010), bundles of practices (Guchait and Cho 2010), or have used existing practices in organisations surveyed to operationalise HR practices (e.g. Chand and Katou 2007). Measure(s) of performance Guest (1999) argues that there is no general theory about performance and its measurement, which can be referred to as the ‘criterion problem’. Dyer and Reeves (1995) suggested that the HR practices work at four levels sequentially- HR (employee), organisational, financial and market. The performance outcomes can be measured as financial, organizational and HR-related outcomes (Boselie et al. 2005). However, as reported by them, the majority of researchers, US commentators in specific, have taken financial outcomes such as profit and productivity. The empirical studies by Ramsay et al. (2000) and Godard (2001) have strongly criticised the use of financial outcomes alone and led to a renewed attention to a pluralist perspective. Paauwe (2004) builds on this pluralist perspective, stressing HRM’s duality in its focus on added value and economic rationality versus moral values and relational rationality. Four studies (Singh 2003; Som 2008; Mulla and Premarajan 2008; Ketkar and Sett 2010) have used the financial measures of performance. The majority of studies have used organisational measures of performance (e.g. Chand and Katou 2007; Cooke and Saini 2010; Guchait and Cho 2010). Only two studies (Paul and Anantharaman 2003; Chand 2010) have adopted multiple performance measures financial and organisational. The remaining studies used HR-related outcomes like organisational commitment (Paul and Anantharaman 2003, 2004; Shahnawaz and Juyal 2006; Maheshwari, Bhat, and Saha 2008; Guchait and Cho 2010; SamGnanakkan 2010), intentions to leave (Guchait and Cho 2010; SamGnanakkan 2010) and employee performance (Ketkar and Sett 2010). There is limited research on HR-related or proximal outcomes which are treated as intervening variables between HR practices and organisational performance (Kehoe and Wright, forthcoming). This suggests that majority of the research in India is based on unitarist perspective. Another limitation of the reviewed studies is that none have studied the potential impact of HRM practices on negative employee outcomes such as dissatisfaction, stress, burnout and fatigue (Guest 1999; Purcell 1999). Sample size The HRM and performance studies present two unique sets of issues owing to sample size. While large sample sizes are difficult to obtain, given the unit or firm level of analysis, the more related challenge is that practically important relationships may be missed because of inadequate statistical power (Gerhart 2007).   A commonly used approach to determining the needed sample size for a latent variable model is based on the number of parameters estimated (Williams and O’Boyle Jr. 2008). A study with more parameters suggests a need for a larger sample size. Thus, sample size plays an important role in a research study. It is important to classify studies on the basis of primary levels of analysis (Boselie et al. 2005). The sample size used in the reviewed studies ranged from a low of 54 employees (Cooke and Saini 2010) to a high of 4,811 employees (Stumph, Doh, and Tymon 2010). The majority of studies reported sample size of over 100. It is suggested that when testing sophisticated models, large number of samples should be used (Hulland, Chow, and Lam 1996; MacCallum, Browne, and Sugawara 1996). The units of analysis were either a single organisation or multiple organisations. The sample in multiple organisation study ranged from 2 (Shahnawaz and Juyal 2006) to 439 organisations (Chand 2010). Respondents A methodological issue that continues to be debated concerns who should provide information about HRM (Guest 2011). There has been an ongoing call for using data collected from multiple informants about the presence of practices (Gerhart et al. 2000). Marchington and Zagelmeyer (2005) suggest that most of the high commitment studies have relied on management respondents to estimate the impact of HR practices on performance. It has been suggested that, particularly in the context of large organisations, senior HR managers are not always reliable informants and that it is more sensible to seek information from those experiencing the practices, namely workers. Paauwe (2009) makes a plea for a more contextual approach to HRM. He also suggests that future research should explore HRM- Performance link in light of broader multiple stakeholders like employees, government, trade unions, consumer organizations, etc (Paauwe and Boselie 2005). Also, research should endeavour to adopt a broader v iew of performance, taking into consideration employee concerns and wellbeing (Guest 2004). The majority of the reviewed studies have reported data from a single respondent, mainly focusing on senior management (Singh 2003; Agarwala 2003). While acknowledging the possible rater bias, such studies suggest that future studies could use a multi-rater approach, specially collecting data from heads of other functions. Ketkar and Sett (2010) proposed that their choice of single respondent senior managers from departments other than HR is consistent with the proposition of Batt (2002).   Batt (2002) argued that selection of non-HR managers as respondents could improve the reliability of measurements as these managers are expected to be more objective about the HR systems. Only three studies have used multiple respondents.   These include Sharma (2008) and Chand (2010), who have drawn samples from employees and customers, and Som (2008) who used samples drawn from senior executives MD, Director, VP, GM and HR personnel. Industry context Datta, Guthrie, and Wright (2005) suggest that industry characteristics may have wide implications for HRM. While there have been an increasing number of studies that discuss the impact of HRM practices on performance, research on the contextual factors that moderate the efficacy of these practices has been largely ignored. The findings of studies conducted in specific industry contexts are not necessarily generalisable to other industries. Seven studies (Singh 2003; Agarwala 2003; Khandekar and Sharma 2005; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007; Som 2008; Stumph et al. 2010; Cooke and Saini 2010) draw on samples from multiple industries. Few studies have drawn samples from software industry (Paul and Anantharaman 2003, 2004), hotel industry (Chand and Katou 2007; Chand 2010), banking (Sharma 2008), and the information and communication technology industry (SamGnanakkan 2010). Theoretical basis Boselie, Dietz, and Boon (2005) identify three commonly used theories for defining the HRM and performance relationship, namely, contingency theory, resource based view (RBV) and Abilities, Motivation and Opportunities (AMO) framework. Contingency theory argues that HRM responds accurately and effectively to the organisation’s environment and complements other organisational systems (e.g. Arthur 1994; Huselid 1995; MacDuffie 1995; Delaney and Huselid 1996; Delery and Doty 1996; Wright et al. 2001). RBV advocates that HRM delivers ‘added value’ through the strategic development of the organisation’s rare, inimitable and non-substitutable internal resources, embodied in its staff (e.g. Boxall and Steeneveld 1999; Guthrie 2001; Batt 2002). RBV has become the dominant theoretical paradigm in most recent SHRM literature (Lengnick-Hall et al. 2009). AMO model argues that organisational interests are best served by an HR system that attends to employees’ interests, namely their skill requirements, motivations and the quality of their job (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Bailey, Berg, and Sandy 2001). It is interesting to note that these three approaches represent different traditions in HRM research. Contingency theory is based on organizational institutional theory. RBV can be traced back to concepts in Organizational economics, whereas the AMO framework has its theoretical underpinnings in industrial/ organizational psychology. Five studies (Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007; Som 2008; Cooke and Saini 2010; Guchait and Cho 2010; Ketkar and Sett 2010) have explicitly specified the theoretical basis for review. Bjorkman and Budhwar (2007) draw on the resource based view (RBV) of strategic human resource management literature. Som (2008) found empirical evidence based on a universalistic or a best practices perspective. Cooke and Saini (2010) integrate three existing theories- RBV, ‘new’ institutional theory and organisational politics perspective. Guchait and Cho (2010) support a configurational or bundles approach to HRM.   Ketkar and Sett (2010) extends the existing conceptualisation of HR flexibility used by Wright and Snell (1998). All the other articles reviewed did not contain a clear reference to the conceptual perspective adopted in the study. Data collection method(s) Hesketh and Fleetwood (2006) argue that most of the researchers show an empirical association between HRM practices and organizational performance. The authors argue that the existence or non-existence of empirical association does not necessarily imply causal connection between them. Also, Wright et al. (2005) identified that most empirical studies studying HRM and performance are post-predictive in nature. This means HRM practices were measured after the performance period. A more appropriate approach would involve assessing HRM practices at one point of time and assessing performance at some future point of time (Huselid 1995; Youndt et al. 1996; Paauwe 2009). The more recent studies (Guest, Conway, and Sheenan 2003; Wright et al. 2005) control for both past and subsequent performance. Seventeen studies used the cross-sectional quantitative survey method. Although some studies have suggested use of longitudinal surveys, none of them have applied the method in their own study. The cross-sectional nature of the reviewed studies does not allow for any conclusions regarding causal relationships. Two studies (Agarwala 2003; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007) have used a mixed methodology using quantitative survey and interviews. The study by Cooke and Saini (2010) can be classified as a purely qualitative study. Only one study (Mulla and Premarajan 2008) was based on secondary data. The study drew on data from Chairpersons’ speech and directors’ reports of 100 companies listed by the Center for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) database, Prowess. It can be concluded that survey method is the dominant method for researching the HRM and performance literature in India.   Although, a social survey offers a great deal of insight into the phenomenon of interest, it is unable to answer some basic questions. For instance, even if a presented theory allows the understanding of reality, the question remains why this reality should be as it is according to this theory (Mingers, 2004; Stavenga, 2006). Thus, future research could focus on adopting a qualitative or a mixed method f or collecting data. Directions for future research Several suggestions for future research have been made in the reviewed studies. The key issues that have been put forth are the black box problem (Agarwala 2003; Chand and Katou 2007; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007; Som 2008; SamGnanakkan 2010); the need for longitudinal studies (Singh 2003; Paul and Anantharaman 2004; Som 2008; Chand 2010; Ketkar and Sett 2010); the need to study additional variables (Singh 2003; Paul and Anantharaman 2004; Bjorkman and Budhwar 2007); and the use of multiple respondents (Singh 2003; Cooke and Saini 2010; Ketkar and Sett 2010; SamGnanakkan 2010). Some studies suggest that future studies could be cross-national (Singh 2003; Chand 2010; Cooke and Saini 2010; Guchait and Cho 2010) and could use different industry settings (Paul and Anantharaman 2003; Sharma 2008; Cooke and Saini 2010). In this article, we will focus on a key issue that emerges from the existing studies- the black box problem. Boselie et al. (2005) has noted that despite the increasing volume of research on HRM and performance, there has been little focus on the ‘how’ aspect of the linkages.   Purcell and Hutchinson (2007, 3) note the critical link in the black box problem is ‘how HR practices influence employee attitudes and improve worker performance’. This involves a call for making the research more worker-centric (Guest 2011). The workers’ perceptions and behaviour has become increasingly vital in understanding the relationship between HRM and performance. A number of studies have discussed how the HR practices influence financial performance (Huselid 1995; Wright and Snell 1998; Ahmad and Schroeder 2003). An increasing number of human resource scholars suggest it is important to explore the ‘black box’ containing the links between HRM practices and distant organizational performance measures such as proï ¬ tability or stock value (Becker and Gerhart 1996; Tremblay et al. 2010; Krishnan and Singh 2011). Researchers argue that HRM practices have only an indirect effect on organisational performance (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Delery and Shaw 2001; Way and Johnson 2005). While there have been many studies that have acknowledged the existence of black box issue, Boselie et al. (2005) found 20 articles that have discussed the issue in detail. The black box issue has been investigated using two routes. The first route is through quantitative studies that have substantiated the need for identifying the role of intermediate variables in the HRM and performance linkages (Razouk 2011). Becker and Grehart (1996, 793) stated ‘unless and until researchers are able to elaborate models, including key intervening variabless of these intermediate variables are employees’ attitudes, behaviours and performance, measured on an organizational level (Sels et al. 2006). Fey et al. (2009) have worked on dataset of 241 firms consisting of subsidiaries of 241 MNEs operating in Russia, USA, and Finland. The findings demonstrate that motivation and ability are important mediating variables in the HRM– Multinational enterprise subsidiary performance relationship. Boon et al. (2011) show that some relationships between perceived HR practices and employee outcomes appear to be indirect, occurring via Person–Organisation and Person–Job ï ¬ t. Elorza, Aritzetab, and Ayestaran (2011) conducted multilevel analyses of a sample of 732 employees from 26 Spanish small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The study supported a model in which employees commitment mediates between the actual system and unit-level absenteeism, which in turn has an effect on productivity. The second route used to investigate black box issues rely on in-depth qualitative research. Authors (Truss 2001; Purcell et al. 2003, Purcell and Hutchinson 2007) suggest that qualitative research is more appropriate to explore the black box since there could be an existence of a gap between intentions of HR managers and practice experienced by employees. In Indian research context, three articles (Agarwala 2003; Paul and Anantharaman 2003; Ketkar and Sett 2010) have discussed the black box problem concerning HRM practices and performance linkages. Agarwala (2003) demonstrates that certain combinations of Innovative Human Resource Practices (IHRPs) lead to specific employee attitudes, such as organizational commitment. The study attempts to provide an explanation for the HR-firm performance link. Paul and Anantharaman (2003) developed a HRM-performance linkage model with four intervening variables- competence, teamwork, organisational commitment and customer orientation between HRM practices and operating performance. The operating performance in turn has an impact on financial performance. Ketkar and Sett (2010) confirm the concept of HR value chain. The study proposes that HR systems have a direct impact on firm-level HR outcomes such as employee performance (also referred to as proximal outcomes). Also, the effects of HR systems on more distal operational and financial outcomes are mediated by HR outcomes. To summarise, studies have started investigating the black box issue in emerging and developing economies. In India, however, the studies are still scarce. There has been no study which has used the route of qualitative research to explore the black box. Future research should aim to continue ‘the search for holy grail’ by exploring the issue further. Conclusion Researchers (e.g., Bowen, Galang, and Pillai 2002; Zhu et al. 2008) highlight that strategic HRM research mainly has been limited to advanced market economies. India’s growing economic importance as an emerging market economy makes it an interesting research context. The growth of SHRM in India thus has wide ranging implications for researchers as well as practitioners. However, we would like to acknowledge some limitations inherent in the study which should be considered in evaluating its findings. First, the review is specific to a single country, India. Future research could seek to extend the scope to other emerging economies. We also suggest a comparative review of India with other emerging economies or Western economies offers an interesting case. Second, the number of reviewed studies is less which reflects that the field of SHRM in India is still growing. Third, the review has been limited to articles discussing the HRM and performance linkages. Thus, we may have failed to cover articles on other relevant issues in SHRM like role of HR in cross-border mergers and acquisitions (Budhwar et al. 2009), strategic integration and devolvement of HRM (e.g. Budhwar and Sparrow 1997). Although not the focus of this paper, these topics could be of academic interest and exploring them further may have important implications. Despite these limitations, t he article provides significant insights in the burgeoning field of SHRM in a promising world economy, India. The study suggests that while there has been an increasing volume of research on SHRM in India, the literature needs to more actively engage in conceptual and methodological debates. The review also highlights the areas of SHRM research that merit future attention in India. Furthermore, the study contributes to the extant literature by reviewing the state of empirical research in India on SHRM. References Agarwala, Tanuja. 2003. 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